Theoretical Criminology s Theory Of Delinquency And Drug...

Introduction According to Bernard, Snipes, and Gerould (2016), a theory is a reasonable explanation for something based on ones’ beliefs, attitudes, and available information that make up the intellectual and rational surroundings of people at different times. Therefore, theoretical criminology are facts about crime based on the same elements. Most theories attempt to pinpoint the type of criminal behavior the causes crime using one theory of another to explain the facts based one theory. A large portion of criminologist believe that too many theories exist that are inconsistence with proven research data and should be eliminated [by the process of falsification] as a source of information, while others believe these theories should†¦show more content†¦The â€Å"strain theory† argues that delinquency may be caused because of ones’ failure to achieve a specific goal or satisfy specific needs such as social acceptance, monetary status, or status among peers (Bernard et al, 2016). According to Piquero and Sealock (2004) strain has three major causes: (1) failure to accomplish valued goals [positive expectations after completing a task], (2) the loss of something or someone considered close [a parent or serious relationship], (3) the presence of something associated with a negative event [physical abu se]. Research by Piquero and Sealock (2004) found that Agnew proposed a â€Å"general strain theory† that focuses on strain on the individual level caused by negative relationships with others, which may cause negative emotions resulting in crime. Agnew used this theory to specifically answer the question, why adolescence choose to engage in delinquent behavior and drugs (Piquero Sealock, 2001). Empirical evidence suggests when adolescents are confronted with a situation they perceive as harmful and being trapped in such as living at home and attending school, the possibility of deviant behavior increases. An example of the strain theory displayed in the movie dealt with the lack of parental supervision. Most of the teens in this movie had no real connection with their parents causing the group to spend a lot of time together, creating more opportunities to engage in delinquent behavior. ThisShow MoreRelatedIntegrated Theories of Criminal Justice Essay example3632 Word s   |  15 PagesIntegrated Theories of Criminal Justice Abstract Two theorist and theories that have been recognized by many involved in the criminal justice field are Ross L. Matsuedas Theory of Differential Social Control, and, Charles R. Tittles Control Balance Theory. Matsuedas theory, (1) identifies a broader range of individual-level mechanisms of social control, (2) specifying group and organizational processes for controlling delinquency, (3) conceptualizing classical criminological theories as specialRead MoreControl Theory15246 Words   |  61 Pages6 The Complexity of Control Travis Hirschi 1935– University of Arizona Author of Social Bond Theory Hirschi’s Two Theories and Beyond T ravis Hirschi has dominated control theory for four decades. His influence today is undiminished and likely will continue for years, if not decades, to come (see, e.g., Britt Gottfredson, 2003; Gottfredson, 2006; Kempf, 1993; Pratt Cullen, 2000). Beyond the sheer scholarly talent manifested in his writings, what accounts for Hirschi’s enduring influence onRead MoreEssay on Criminological Theories13456 Words   |  54 PagesStudent Study Guide for Ronald L. Akers and Christine S. Sellers’ Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Applications Fourth Edition Prepared by Eric See Youngstown State University Roxbury Publishing Company Los Angeles, California 1 Student Study Guide by Eric See for Criminological Theories: Introduction, Evaluation, and Application , 4th Edition by Ronald L. Akers and Christine S. Sellers Copyright  © 2004 Roxbury Publishing Company, Los Angeles, California

A Reflection On My Personal Experience - 1390 Words

ISS Reflection Paper I would never aspire to be king because it is much more interesting to be the king-maker. This is my informed judgment based on the sufficiency of my experience and the intrinsic value I derive from analytical and creative problem solving processes. I opine Strategic Advisor and Communicator are synonymous with my definition of â€Å"king-maker,† both roles I have experience and some success with. Nevertheless, I am fortunate to have many years of experience to reflect on and guide this self-assessment. Accordingly, I begin this self-assessment by reflecting on a seemingly random event that shaped my attitudes, values, and ethics, and led to important changes in my personal life. Once armed with these insights, I will†¦show more content†¦He emphasized these eight competencies were â€Å"outcomes† of our war college learning experience combined with our attitudes, values, and ethics. I interpreted this to mean that it is unreasonable to expect that all eight c ompetencies would be resident in my professional toolbox at this time, emphasis is mine. This begs the question, what competencies do I have? As originally stated, I have experience and some success executing the mission-specific competencies of a Strategic Advisor and Communicator while serving in the U.S. European Command and the U.S. Special Operations Command. Gavlin explains this mission-specific competency as â€Å"Professional judgment in matters of advice and communication stem from a full understanding of the environment through scanning, cultural awareness, ethical reasoning, and understanding the implications of the advice given.† While in Europe, I was a member of an interagency team responsible for drafting U.S. Embassy-Berlin’s diplomatic position, i.e. Note Verbale, with the government of Germany on how U.S. Army Europe would conduct oversight of Support to Intelligence Operations related contracts. Heretofore, these negotiations were routine and resolved at the lowest levels without issue. However, public disclosures aboutShow MoreRelatedPersonal Reflection : My Personal Experience1625 Words   |  7 Pagesbecause it is so easy to become tangled in our worries, stress, and busy schedules. Reflection can differ depending on the individual. For example, reflection to one individual can be accomplished through attending mass and having time to pray to God. For another individual, reflection could consist of participating in meditation or yoga. No matter how it is done it can be beneficial to one’s health and well-being. Reflection consists of taking time to carefully think and so it is necessa ry to make timeRead MorePersonal Reflection On My Personal Experience1467 Words   |  6 PagesDuring my life journey, I had encountered and experienced working with various people who posses different leadership qualities and I found myself accomplishing various leadership qualities using models in numerous situation which had impacted my life. In this diary, I will examine various leadership models that have moulded the way I approach the thought of authority and I will concentrate on the lead characters, which I possess myself. The focused will be given on reflections on my personal historyRead MorePersonal Experience : My Personal Reflection944 Words   |  4 Pages I consider my personal level of competence I had when I started this course was one of awareness and inexperience. In other words, I was aware of the cultural inequities that surround me and the field in which I work. As this course moved forward from week to week, I paralleled the reading material with my work experiences. It should be noted that I have little diversity in my caseload as far as race. However, I do have diversity in my caseload to do with life circumstances. These circumstancesRead MoreAn Reflection Of My Personal Experience1313 Words   |  6 Pagesspiritual discernment. For those that are gifted with both, intuition and spiritual discernment you can pretty much take what they say to the bank, it will happen or has happened just like they said it would. In my personal experience, I work with a lot of women on a day to day basis. In my particular ministry scope I help hurting women, particularly those that have been rejected or wounded in some way. Some of these women have been hurt deeply and must be handled with great care in order for me notRead MorePersonal Reflection : My Educational Experience1407 Words   |  6 Pages Education My educational experience is one amazing thing I would never forget. My parents gave me an experience of a lifetime that I would never let go and continue to expand. It was a gift of a great education I could have tossed away but instead I took advantage of it and it expanded my intellect and made me more independent. As a young girl my parents always told me, they wanted a great educational experience for me. They said no matter what it took to get me into good schools, to have a greatRead MorePersonal Reflections of My Experience as Operational Manager2662 Words   |  11 PagesIntroduction Executive Summary This journal is an insight on my thoughts and experiences and my own reflection of operations management and the topics in which we have looked at in both lectures and my interactive workshops. In this journal I will cover the following: †¢ My own experiences in relation to operations management †¢ A reflection on what I have learned in both lectures and tutorials †¢ A reflection on the extra material that we had access to from moodle. Week 1: 30th January Lecture: DuringRead MoreReflection Of A Reflective Leadership Retreats1084 Words   |  5 Pagesand sharing. Collective conversations addressed both the assigned readings, as well as application of the lessons to personal, professional, and spiritual settings. We experienced what Walters (2006) considered the essence of retreats, which is to â€Å"have conversations with each other about things that are important†¦individually and collectively† (p. 22) Reflection on Retreat Experience Accustomed to a world inundated with technology, constant motion, and noise, spending a sustained period of time inRead MoreReporting Studying senior social science subjects was the most influential factor which provided a1600 Words   |  7 PagesReporting Studying senior social science subjects was the most influential factor which provided a wonderful opportunity to discover my abilities and develop skills and confidence in critical thinking and systematic research processes. Especially, getting an A+ for a psychology report assignment and genuinely enjoying the process have given me a sense of competence in performing similar tasks such as planning and conducting experiments, analysing results, and evaluating research processes. AfterRead More1. Introduction. Reflective Practice Is A Key Part Of Working1646 Words   |  7 Pagesintrinsically linked; a clinician learns through examining experiences (Bolton, 2010). It encourages an appropriate amount of autonomy while also ensuring accountability (Tarrant, 2013). Tarrant also describes the importance of reflection for professional and personal values, and how and why a clinician does something, rather than just what is done. Development may even be hindered if reflection does not tak e place. The impact of reflection can be significant; as understanding increases so does theRead MoreReflective Writing1241 Words   |  5 PagesHow do I . . . Write a Reflection? Why reflective writing? Reflection offers you the opportunity to consider how your personal experiences and observations shape your thinking and your acceptance of new ideas. Professors often ask students to write reading reflections. They do this to encourage you to explore your own ideas about a text, to express your opinion rather than summarise the opinions of others. Reflective writing can help you to improve your analytical skills because it requires

An Analysis of Faulkners A Rose For Emily free essay sample

This paper discusses the different imagery used by William Faulkner in his story, A Rose for Emily. This paper is a critical analysis of the portrayal of women in William Faulkners, `A Rose for Emily` Using examples from the book, the writer discusses societys impossible ideal for women, and demonstrates of religious imagery in the story also serves to propagate this image of women. Some of the examples used include how Emily is presented to the readers and how she is transformed from virginal, to tainted once her affair is revealed. According to the paper, Faulkner was attempting to illustrate how unrealistic expectations and demands placed upon women, in this case, Emily, lead to loneliness, isolation and even murder. Emily takes compensation a step further by murdering Homer to prevent him from leaving her. Even though the townspeople suspect Homers demise, they do nothing about it. The reason for this is touched upon (as well as the foreshadowing Homers death) when they excuse her for trying to keep the decaying body of her father, We did not say she was crazy then. We will write a custom essay sample on An Analysis of Faulkners A Rose For Emily or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page We believed she had to do that. We remembered all the young men her father had driven away, and we knew that with nothing left, she would have to cling to that which had robbed her, as people will. (Faulkner, 1992, 3).

Vietnam Essays (586 words) - First Indochina War, Vietnam War

Vietnam The Vietnam War was a brutal war that affected millions of people in many different countries. All wars start because there is a difference in people's opinions, and the Vietnam War was no different. It started because France and a Vietnam leader, Ho Chi Minh, had a difference in opinion about the type of government Vietnam should have. To find out why the war broke out you will have to go back to the 1750's. This is where the French started their so-called protectorate state of Vietnam. For many years the people of Vietnam protested but could not organize into a force powerful enough to resist the French. Then in 1946 a communist educated individual called Ho Chi Minh organized the people of North Vietnam and drove out the French rulers in a war that took eight years. During peace settlements in Geneva they allowed North and South Vietnam to become separate nations, divided on the 17th parallel. This was only to last for two years. After two years the two countries would then vote on a common leader and reunite the two countries once more. This never happened. South Vietnam was afraid that a Communist leader would be chosen and the nation would be in ruins. Communist guerrillas in South Vietnam opposing the canceled election began attacks on Southern Vietnam and remaining French officials to gain control of South V ietnam. If North Vietnam was to begin their invasion of South Vietnam the Communist ruler Ho Chi Minh was sure to have complete control over the nation and spread his ideas of communism to neighboring countries. The United States thought that this should not happen so in 1965 the president ordered the bombing of North Vietnam and the landing of US troops in South Vietnam. This then caused North Vietnam to send regular units to the South. That therefore, cause more US troops to become involved. All of this kept building and building until it was a full-scale war. The main cause that lead the Vietnam War to brake out was that the old imperial France thought they could keep a so called protectorate state without giving them any freedom. Then a communist leader came along that united the people and took over in the name of freedom. The U.S. thought that if Vietnam became communist then neighboring countries would soon follow. They did not want communism to spread so they tried to stop it but it did not work out like they thought it would. The United States hatred for communism was what pulled them into the war. Another mishappening that pulled the United States deeper in to the war happened in the first week of August 1964, when North Vietnamese torpedo boats were reported to have attacked two U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. As a result of this attack, former President Lyndon B. Johnson ordered jets to South Vietnam and the retaliatory bombing of military targets in North Vietnam. Later on, this information was found out to be false. The Vietnam War was a very unique war. There has been many different thing said about the Vietnam War. Some say the war was a waste of time because it as not our battle. There are many reasons that caused us to enter into the war. This war was very unique because the U.S. didn't win but did win most of the battles. The U.S. was greatly affected by the war and so was Vietnam. American History

Americas security and economic priorities

Americas security and economic priorities The United States of America has always prioritized on security and economic matters. The highest priority of the United States on matters of security is to ensure that all the American citizens are well protected by the state from any form of insecurity, either internal or external. The safety and the safeguarding of human life have been termed as matters of priority.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Americas security and economic priorities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Over the years, the United States has been attacked severally by the terrorists who kill a lot of innocent Americans. To prevent any further attacks, the federal government has ensured that security remains a key priority. This has made the president become committed to the provision of ideal security in order to prevent any terrorist attacks and any related threats against the homeland security. The government has also ensured that through the co operation with the other stakeholders it is in the position of prevent and provide mitigation response mechanisms. The national strategy on matters of security has laid a strategic plan that addresses the issues of security in the 21st century. A report released by Fanez (2011) on matters of international security show that violence and organized crimes at the transnational level have been identified as matters of primary challenge that needs to be addressed quickly. Since this is a grave matter, the international community and the Central American governments have joined hands to ensure that the regional security is maintained. The different stakeholders have come together to ensure that citizens’ security is given priority and that the rates of violence are reduced. The economic interests and priorities of the United States government are to ensure economic recovery within the shortest time possible. This stimulation would enable the country to maintain strong ties with the international community and other players for economic development. The government intends to establish an economy based on transparency, accountability and responsibility among the key players. The government is working towards the improvement of the economy and a reduction of the high rates of unemployment and healthcare.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More By ensuring that the economy of the United States stabilises the U.S would be in a position to ensure that corporation exists with the international community. The economic policies of the U.S shape the other economies in the world and its wellbeing ensures that all other economies are operating from the same level. The aid offered by the United States to less developed nations assist in ensuring that economic ties exists as the debts are reduced and the level of standard of living is upgraded. International relationships have been ensured because of the economic interests of the U.S. The longevity of the US regional alliances is influenced by its cultural superiority, military strength, and the trading markets. These have caused imperialism in the region hence its long stand. U.S is a multilingual state that accommodates almost all the people in the world. The U.S deploys its military to different parts of the world. It also offers military assistance in both in human capital and knowledge leading to empowerment in military strength. Its might in military technology has ensured that other states can adopt the same through military aids and trainings. The trading blocks of the U.S have been opened to other countries. In conclusion, the U.S security priority is to protect its citizens against any internal or external security matters. It also aims at fighting terrorism, organised crimes, and violence that have become international matters. On economic matters the U.S aims at stabilising its economy a nd reducing the high rate of unemployment and making healthcare affordable and available to its citizens. New markets, military strength and cultural superiority have ensured that U.S stands out in the region. Funez, Angela. International Conference in Support of the Central America Security Strategy. 23 Jun 2011. Web. https://events.iadb.org/calendar/event/13928?lang=enAdvertising We will write a custom essay sample on Americas security and economic priorities specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Homeland Security. n.d. Web. https://www.whitehouse.gov/issues/economy-jobs/

Class and Its Derivatives

Class and Its Derivatives Class and Its Derivatives Class and Its Derivatives By Mark Nichol The Latin noun classis, meaning â€Å"category† or â€Å"fleet† or referring to a group of citizens called up for military duty, is the source of the word class and others derived from it, which are listed and defined in this post. In educational contexts, class pertains to a group of students (whether those enrolled in a particular course or in the same grade level), a course of instruction, or a meeting of such a course. In a socioeconomic sense, it refers to a stratum of social standing, in science it denotes a level of organization of living things, and in general it refers to a category. The verb class, meaning â€Å"categorize,† is used in the scientific and general senses, and the word serves as an adjective, including in the idiom â€Å"class act,† which offers an additional meaning equivalent to the adjective classy, meaning â€Å"elegant,† â€Å"refined,† â€Å"skillful,† or â€Å"well mannered.† The adjectives first-class and second-class literally pertain to a high and a moderate quality of accommodations during travel, respectively, and figuratively denote superiority and inferiority, respectively. (High-class and low-class are equivalent to the latter meanings.) The nouns â€Å"upper class† (pertaining to the affluent), â€Å"middle class† (those living a moderate lifestyle), and â€Å"lower class† (those with low incomes or none at all) also serve as adjectives. â€Å"Leisure class† refers to people wealthy enough that they are not required to work for a living. â€Å"Working class† describes people employed in jobs that do not necessarily require higher education as an employment qualification. (Underclass is similar in meaning.) The pejorative, condescending expression â€Å"chattering classes† alludes to political opponents who utter what are considered meaningless opinions. Terms related to education with the root class include classmate, referring to one enrolled in the same course or grade level, and classroom, denoting a room used for instruction. An upperclassman is a student in one of the two higher grade levels in secondary or postsecondary education (often identified as a junior or senior), and an underclassman has a standing in one of the two lower levels (a freshman or a sophomore.) (The female equivalents upperclasswoman and underclasswoman are rare.) Several terms based on class allude to a high quality of artistic achievement. Classic, as a noun or an adjective, alludes to something authoritative or typical, or long considered an exemplar of great achievement or high quality, though by extension it now describes anything memorable, even if merely because it is highly amusing or ironic. (â€Å"Did you see her trip and fall into her wedding cake? That was classic!†) â€Å"The classics† describes either the extant works of celebrated Greek and Roman writers or a nebulous body of more recent literature that those who claim to be erudite should be acquainted with. A style of architecture or art, including literature, that calls to mind the characteristics of corollary Greek or Roman achievements is referred to as classicism. Neoclassicism is an esthetic form influenced by classicism, and postclassicism denotes one that follows a period understood to be one of classicism. (The adjectival forms are classical, neoclassical, and postclassical.) Classical music is a form of sophisticated musical expression as distinct from simpler music such as folk or jazz. In terms of quality or social strata, other words derived from class include classism, meaning â€Å"discrimination based on class,† as well as classless, which can refer either to a lack of sophistication thought to be the result of being raised in an inferior class (dà ©classà © is a synonym for this sense adopted directly from French) or to someone who lives outside of class-based strictures or to freedom from class distinctions. Words pertaining to categorization include the verb classify and the adjective classified, which simply means â€Å"arrange into classes† but is also part of the standing phrase â€Å"classified ads† (sometimes truncated to â€Å"classifieds), which refers to advertisements divided into categories; the adjective also describes something categorized as being of restricted to a certain audience, such as a government document. Something that can be classified is classifiable, and classificatory describes something pertaining to classification. To outclass is to outperform someone considered to be in the same class, and a subclass is a further division of a category. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Creative Writing 101Top 11 Writing Apps for iOS (iPhone and iPad)â€Å"Least,† â€Å"Less,† â€Å"More,† and â€Å"Most†

Criminology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Criminology - Research Paper Example There are stipulated guidelines that govern how various groups come to co-exist together, but this varies from country to country. Where these rules are broken then the effective and binding law is broken. An immigrant in a broad sense is said to be a person of foreign citizenship enters a country illegally without proper documentation from the state department (Levy 89). It cans also occur that one has proper documentation but clearly overstays the allocated time in the visa by the immigrations department. This paper, therefore, seeks to look into illegal immigration in the United States of America, the opportunities and treat it presents to the economy and an insight into some sociological theories that try to explain the above. Immigration started in the ancient times with the most recent one being the slave trade from sub-Saharan Africa into Europe and the US. However in recent days, it has changed to involve even sex slave from the Asian continent. There are various perspectives that endeavor to explain this. This theory depicts the society as a social system that is made up of different, interdependent parts that rely on each other for the full functionality of the society. This is accompanied by different levels of social stratification so as to attain a social balance. In a recent study, in the US, it has been established that the number of illegal immigrants is fast out spacing that of the legal immigrants (Levy 103). This shows there is a dynamic shift in this particular social class stratum. In the same study, it has been established that the illegal immigrants are no longer staying in areas with large legal immigrants but rather have started spreading all over the United States. The study further indicates a peculiar trend on the level of education of the immigrants who are educated up to college level. This theory brings forth an argument between

Paper about Atheism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Paper about Atheism - Essay Example It could be that they think in the tangible sense that anything that exists must be able to be proven. Many highly intellectual people need proof and evidence of something to ever believe in its being. Some philosophers and sociologists are not this way as they create a thought and see how society relates to it or use philosophy to explain something. Religion in some ways, is a philosophy. Religion could be seen as a way to keep going in life. To have faith in something that is unseen often gives people a meaning to their point of being. People use religion to talk to a God or to ask for help from angels in hopes that there is something out there to help them through. One would think that a life without some sort of spirituality or religion would be a life that has no meaning. For many, having a God or something to believe in is as essential as breathing. Varying religions contradict each other so much. Hundreds of religious views are followed by a group of people. Is religion a form of brainwashing? Religion and a belief in a higher power could just vary so much because for each person, that is what works for them and it is what they have come to know. Not that all people who believe in religious views are naà ¯ve. Those who are atheists, certainly are not naà ¯ve into believing that there is some other power that is accountable for all that is incorporated into being. They are not willing to turn their lives into something that they cannot see, hear, feel or touch. To have faith in a god is to believe in something that cannot be felt among any of those senses but to only read teachings of those that came before us. There is controversy about the actual term atheism. The word is of Greek origin of a combination of â€Å"a† and â€Å"theos.† The true meaning of â€Å"atheos,† though is questionable. â€Å"Atheos† could mean â€Å"no God,† â€Å"without God,† â€Å"lack God belief† or

The Life and Times of a Nobel Laureate Essay Example for Free

The Life and Times of a Nobel Laureate Essay One of the more important historical figures within the scientific community was what Werner Heisenberg contributed to quantum physics. Born in Germany on December 5, 1901 to Dr. August Heisenberg and Annie Wecklem, the influences were already prominent for Werner to excel in sciences as he father had already excelled in his own dominance of â€Å"Middle and Modern Greek languages at the University of Munich† (Nobel Foundation, n. d. ) After graduation from the University of Munich in 1920, he excelled substantially in the field of physics and worked under such great physicists as Max Born, Franck and Hilbert and became an assistant under Max Born after receiving his Ph. D. in 1923. Heisenberg’s life moved on to become one of the better known physicists in German and until the Second World War he was a â€Å"Professor of Physics at the University of Berlin and the Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Physics. † (Nobel Foundation, n. d. ) Dominance in Physics Heisenberg continued his dominance in the field of physics well after the War and continued to pursue his lifelong love of physics well past the War with his â€Å"return in 1946 to Germany and reorganized, along with colleagues, the Institute for Physics at Gottingen and in 1948 it was renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics†. (Nobel Foundation, n. d. ) Perhaps the best association the world of physics has with the Heisenberg name is through the publishing of his â€Å"theory of quantum physics, published in 1925, when he was only 23 years old. For this theory and the applications of it which resulted in the discovery of allotropic forms of hydrogen, Heisenberg was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1932† (Nobel Foundation, n. d. ). This theory was based only â€Å"on what was observed, that is to say, on the radiation emitted by the atom. We cannot, he said, always assign to an electron a position in space at any given time, nor follow it in its orbit, so that we cannot assume that the planetary orbits postulated by Neils Bohr actually exists. Mechanical quantities, such as position, velocity, etc. should be represented, not by ordinary numbers, but by abstract mathematical structures called â€Å"matrices† and he formulated his new theory in the terms of matrix equations. † (Nobel Foundation, n. d. ) Heisenberg’s theories were not simply limited to quantum physics but he was also famous for his â€Å"principle of uncertainty† which â€Å"lays it down that the determination of the position and the momentum of a mobile particle necessarily contains errors the product of which cannot be less than the quantum constant h and that, although these errors are negligible on the human scale, they cannot be ignored in the studies of the atom†. (Nobel Foundation, n. d. )

I, Too, Am America :: essays research papers

I, Too, Am America by kooshla America, the melting pot of the world, and yet its different races have so much trouble melding together. According to statistics, in all probability, I have a higher chance than any other race teenager of not graduating from high school. By stereotype, all I do is eat fried chicken, sell drugs, and play basketball. In society, I might work twice as hard as the next man and not get the promotion. I am a part of the percentage who chooses to defy the probability, break the stereotype, and change society. I, Too, Am America. Unfortunately, in my experience through junior and senior high, the common black attitude towards education has been one of neglect. Not caring about one "F," or the other, careening through high school with a gpa of 1.5. However, there are those who really care about their grades, earning the respect of their peers and friends. I strive to be in the latter group, so that I can better myself. For every black student who makes that extra effort, that better grade, there will be another person who becomes more enlightened to the facts and not the fiction of black life in America. In the act of improving my mind, I am not only helping myself but furthering the cause for complete equality throughout the nation. As part of America's black youth, I must grow up in a world of racism, no matter what supposed "huge steps" have been made. It is up to me not to use this as an excuse but as an obstacle to surmount. In my lifetime I will be faced with prejudice which may hinder my progress. This opposition must not be met with excuses for substandard work, or inadequate job qualification. It must be met with a serious work ethic, justly qualified applicants, and intelligence so not to be denied for any reason. Through this procedure black people will gain equality and vanquish the racist mentality. I will be one of those people to meet the adversary with full force of mind. I am a black teenager who plays soccer and tennis. Sometimes I am ridiculed for playing these sports by other blacks. I also face ridicule when I make good grades and care about my school work. There will be times when I will have to fight against my own race to get where I want to be in life. My high school career is one of those times. I am and will continue to be myself. I will not stray from my path.

Economic Development Models Essay

Different economic development models have been the product of theorizing from various economic and political contexts. With regards to underdevelopment, the dependency model was chosen for discussion in this paper because the model itself was developed from the experience of underdeveloped countries. The experiences of the Philippines and Venezuela were selected for comparison and contrast because of their relationship to one developed country – the United States where the former is a loyal ally and the latter is presently an ally turned critique. The Dependency Model The Dependency Model as a theory of economic development is based on the premise that in the world today, there exists an unequal relationship between satellite and metropolitan countries. This relationship is based on the evolution of an international division of labor under the world capitalist system which dictates that the role of underdeveloped satellite countries is to provide cheap raw materials and labor necessary for industries in the metropolitan or capitalist countries (Todaro 2006: 25). This is based on the assumption that economic and political dominance is held by capitalist countries and leads to the phenomena of neo-colonization that is the existence of dummy governments subservient to the economic interests of developed countries. Dummy governments are perpetuated by an elite class whose economic interests lie in the raw material export-finished products import orientation of domestic economy and whose political interests lie in protecting these class interests (Perkins, Radelet and Lindauer 2006:24). Some Marxist-leaning dependency theorists attribute these relationships to the occurrence of the crisis of overproduction evident in imperialism where the economic survival of metropolitan states largely depends on the additional role of satellites as markets for finished products (Perkins, Radelet and Lindauer 2006:24). The dependency theory was developed to mirror the underdevelopment and widespread poverty in Latin America which was a vastly contrasting experience to the trickle-down effect of economic wealth from capitalist countries as proposed in neoclassical models of economic growth. The dependency theory further opens alternative roads in attaining development. One is through local development of industries for domestic needs in order that resources would serve the interest of the general population which at the same time reduces the need to import (Todaro 2006: 401). This takes into account that genuine economic development is not only based on actual domestic production but more importantly in how resources and the gains in production actually benefit the people. However, this depends in part on the political will of third-world governments to effect necessary political and economic changes not for the elite but for the population living in poverty (Ferraro 2006). In general, the dependency model predicts a worsening and continued poverty in satellite states as long as the dependency relationship exists. Although there have been no actual third world experience proving the viability of certain methods undertaken to effect domestic economic development, the historical and prevailing circumstances of underdeveloped countries show that the only way out of dependency is through a change in the structural context in which it is rooted. Dependency in the Philippine Context The Philippines, located in Southeast Asia, has a population that is expected to hit 90. 4 million this year and is currently experiencing political turmoil as evidenced in coup-de-etat attempts, allegations of large-scale corruption in government and extrajudicial killings allegedy perpetuated by military forces. The Philippines traces its history to Spanish colonization which profoundly changed the historical direction of the feudal states, semi-slave and semi-communal societies that prevailed during that time. The primarily trading and subsistence based economy that co-existed in the archipelago were transformed into feudal kingdoms ruled by the Catholic Church and the Spanish bureaucracy (Agoncillo 1980:11-16). Economic resources were used to finance Spanish wars, the galleon trade and the excessive lifestyle of the Spanish while the native elite were co-opted into the bureaucracy to consolidate political control over the populace (Agoncillo 1980: 18). The defeat of Spain led to the handover of the Philippines to U. S. auspices through the Treaty of Paris in 1898. The U. S. , then a capitalist state, set up its own bureaucracy under the concept of benevolence assimilation and transformed the feudal remnants of Spanish rule into raw-material extraction for export and promoted the importation of finished products (Eviota 1992:8-9). Large-scale mines and logging operations were opened as well as semi-processing in the textile and electronics industries by multinational companies. A mix of export based agricultural production and semi-processing industry under colonial political conditions was created. The locals were educated and evangelized along Protestant religions which promoted an individualistic and highly consumerist culture, the origin of the Filipino’s propensity at emulating the American lifestyle. The members of the middle class were given Fullbright scholarships which provided the necessary training for their participation in the various levels of colonial economy, politics and culture. The social upheavals after the second world-war fueled movements for independence in U. S. colonies. This was the context in which Philippine independence was granted in 1946. However, economic structures essentially remained intact with the exception that the elite land-owners and big businessmen now made up the bulk of the political bureaucracy (Eviota 1992: 12). Economic and political pressure from the United States ensured the subservience of past and present Philippine governments and cooperation is to a certain extent a primary determinant for a president to stay in power (Agoncillo 1980: 65-68). Although Japan and the members of the EU also have stakes in Philippine import and export, it is largely dominated by U. S. economic interests. At present, the tenets of globalization are firmly enshrined in economic policies of recent and current governments. The large-scale privatization of public utilities involved in energy production and distribution, education and others are already underway. The deregulation of the prices of basic commodities such as oil and gas has been instituted since 1995. The liberalization of trade and agriculture has opened up these crucial aspects of the domestic economy to unfair competition from developing countries and the first world (Ibon 2008). Looking at present economic indicators, the Philippine gross national product for the past year stands at P7,274,660 million, GDP is at P6,651,320 million and balance of trade for 2007 is at $-114 million (NSCB 2008). Of the GDP, 14% is attributed to the agriculture sector, 31% to the industry sector and almost 55% to the service sector. Labor force accounts for 35% in agriculture, 49. 3% in the service sector and 15. 1 in the industry sector (NSCB 2008). The latter involves workers in mining and quarrying, construction, electricity/gas/water and manufacturing. The service sector also includes the growing number of Filipinos employed in call centers sprouting all over the country. In addition, overseas workers contribute about 10% to the total GDP and economic figures do not accurately reflect the cushioning effect of dollar remittances from these workers who leave the country because of the absence of meaningful employment in the country (Jimenez-David 2007). Top 10 Philippine exports include gold, petroleum products, coconut oil, woodcrafts and furniture, ignition wiring sets, other products manufactured from materials imported on consignment basis, cathodes and section of cathodes of refined copper, articles of apparel and clothing accessories, electronic products, metal components (NSCB 2008). Manufactured goods are mainly from export processing zones in various parts of the country. This reflects the semi-processed and raw material nature of Philippine production. Its top 10 imports on the other hand include cereal and cereal preparations, iron and steel, organic and inorganic chemicals, mineral fuels/lubricants and related materials, plastics in primary and non-primary forms, electronic products, textile yarn/fabrics/made-up articles and related products, telecommunication equipment and electrical machinery and electrical machinery/transport equipment (NSCB 2008). The imports reflect the absence of basic manufacturing industries in the country. Although, economic growth has been posted for the 4th quarter of 2007 other indicators should be taken into account to determine the state of economic development especially with regards to the poor. Simple literacy (2000) is 92. 3% and functional literacy (2003) is 84% (NSCB 2008). The top 10 causes of deaths include respiratory infections, tuberculosis, diarrhoeal diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, perinatal conditions and heart diseases, ailments that are easily curable and preventable in the first world (NSCB 2008). In terms of income, the annual income for a family of 6 in 2006 was P173,000. 00, but unemployment and remains high with 6. 3% and 18. 1% respectively in 2007 (NSCB 2008). This translates to around 21 million people. In addition, inflation has most probably decreased purchasing power vis a vis the rising costs of petroleum products in the world market that affects the prices of basic commodities. If the daily cost of living is P680. 00, the annual income per family would only yield P254. 00 per day. Finally, the Philippines has a current $54. 4 billion foreign debt and continues to borrow for payment of debt interests and pad its annual budget deficits (Dumlao 2007). Loans usually come with corresponding Structural Adjustment Programs while loans for public sector projects are usually funded through a build-operate and transfer scheme in favor of companies from the funding country (Ibon 2008). In the realm of politics, the Philippines has the longest running communist insurgency in the world implying that there is a general discontent among a portion of its population (Ibon 2008). The Philippine government has responded by increased military spending and military equipment acquisition. It has also supported the war on Iraq by actually sending members of her military for combat and allowed the entry of U. S. visiting forces despite local calls sovereignty. Although â€Å"democratic† is generally used to describe local politics, elections are characterized by patronage politics, violence, massive vote buying and manipulation so that only the elite have the capacity to run for office (Eviota 1992:12). On a cursory view, current data seems to reinforce the historical developments outlined above and presents how the Philippines has come to be part of a continuing dependency relationship that is far from changing. Dependency in the Context of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela Venezuela, with a population of 26. 7 million in 2005, shares the same historical experience as the Philippines in that both have been subjected to successful Spanish colonization efforts. Exports were primarily cacao, cotton, beef and coffee until the early 1900’s (Salazar-Carillo and Cruz 1994:33). After Spain lost in the series of local uprisings against her, the political landscape was dominated by successive civil wars that served to oust an existing government and install another. In 1908 emerged a dictator, Juan Vicente Gomez who was elected by Congress under questionable circumstances and ruled unchallenged until 1935 with solid control over the military and presumably foreign support (Lieuwen 1969:50). The discovery of oil around that time drastically changed Venezuela’s economy, politics and culture. Necessary technology to develop oil as an industry was undertaken largely with the involvement of the foreign oil companies, notably Shell from Britain and later the Creole Petroleum Company from the United States (Salazar-Carillo and Cruz 1994:42). Both countries had friendly relationships with the Gomez dictatorship because of oil interests. Two decades later, Venezuela has established itself as one of the important sources of oil in the world. Royalty sharing between government and foreign oil companies was through a 50-50 scheme and as foreign revenue increased, it enabled the country to pay its foreign debt (Lieuwen 1969:46). However, much of the wealth created was accumulated by the dictatorship with its policy of well-arming the military to quell dissent. The focus given on the oil industry and overdependence on its revenues resulted in the neglect of other productive sectors such as agriculture such that Venezuela started food importation in the 1920’s (Tinker-Salas 2005:1). Foreign control over the oil industry was entrenched through the promotion of a culture among the intelligentsia that equated prosperity with the oil industry and that foreign oil companies are essential to economic development (Tinker-Salas 2005:1). This was despite the fact that a substantial portion of society, especially those in the agricultural sector who still comprised the bulk of labor force and the displaced peoples from the construction of the oil industry infrastructure, were poor. It is in these aspects that a form of dependency relationship between Venezuela and primarily the U. S. , who had greater control over oil concessions after the Great Depression, was developed. A different turn of events to the contrary occurred with the privatization of the oil industry in the 1970’s. The Petroleos de Venezuela, S. A. (PdVSA) was established as a state-owned company that undertook the sole extraction, processing and exportation of domestic oil (Tinker-Salas 2005:1). However, privatization created a business enterprise out of the oil industry that was virtually untouchable. Because they held (and misused) the bulk of the country’s revenue, the officicials of PdVSA had almost the same political powers as the president and created a sector of managerial personnel that constituted the elite in society (Tinker-Salas 2005:1). Thus, the general view that the oil industry never improved the standards of living of most brought to fore the smoldering class tensions that have been existent in Venezuelan society. The opening up once again of oil concessions to foreign oil companies in 1992 through the Apertura Petrolera policy fueled public perception that the PdVSA worked more for foreign interest than domestic advantages (Tinker-Salas 2005:1). This was the context in which Hugo Chavez found himself when he was elected president in 1998. Contrary to existing PdVSA practice, he instituted reforms in the oil industry, putting more government control in its operations, drafting new laws with regards to oil resources and allocating funds from oil revenue for social programs (Alvarez 2006). In 2001, Venezuela had a crude oil production rate of 3. 6 million barrels a day where about 60% of this is exported to the U. S. conversely supplying an estimated 11% of total U. S. imports of the product (EIA 2008). Though still largely dependent on income from the oil industry, Venezuela is starting to diversify in order to lessen the economic impacts of oil price fluctuations in the world market and decrease importation of basic food stuffs (Alvarez 2006). There are also efforts to decrease reliance on the U. S. oil market through market expansion to other countries in Latin America, China, Iran and India (Alvarez 2006). In addition, Venezuela has started providing foreign aid from its oil revenues to its Latin American neighbors and initiated agreements for a joint venture in natural gas extraction and the refining of crude oil produced in neighboring countries, solidifying its economic and political ties in the region (Alvarez 2006). These developments have earned both commendations and criticisms from the international community but generally seem to point to a nation’s attempt to remove first world control on local resources and industry and effect the delivery of social services from the wealth created as benefits for the people. With regards to how these reforms will significantly and reliably raise the current standard of living of Venezuelans and the Latin American region remains a subject for study by social scientists in the coming years. Its success will provide dependency theorists with empirical evidence of how a satellite state can break away from dependency. List of References Agoncillo, T. H. (1980) The History of the Filipino People. Philippines: Garotech Publishing Alvarez, C. (2006) Venezuela’s Oil-Based Economy [online] Available from [17 February 2008] Dumlao, D. (2007) Foreign debt stock up to $54. 4B [online] Available from [16 February 2008] Energy Information Administration (2008) Available from [17 February 2008] Eviota, E. U. (1992) The Political Economy of Gender: Women and the Sexual Division of Labour in the Philippines. New Jersey: Zed Books Lieuwen, E. (1969) Venezuela. London, New York and Toronto: Oxford University Press Ibon E-Media (2008) The Philippines and Globalization [online] Available from < http://info. ibon. org/index. php? option=com_content&task=blogsection&id=5&Itemid=27> February 2008] Jimenez-David, R. (2007) At Large Migrant Nation [online] Available from [16 February 2008] National Statistics Coordination Board-Philippines (2008). General Reference [online] Available from [17 February 2008] Perkins, D. , Radelet, S. and Lindauer D. (2006) Economics of Development (6th ed). New York and London: Norton Salazar-Carino, J, Cruz, R. (1994) Oil Development in Venezuela. London: Praeger Publishers Tinker-Salas, M. (2005) ‘Fueling Concern: The Role of Oil in Venezuela’. Harvard International Review 26: 5-10 Available from [16 February 2008] Todaro, M. P. , Smith S. (2006) cc Economic Development in the Third World (6th ed). New York and London: Longman Vincent Ferraro-Mt. Holyoke College (2006). Dependency Theory: An Introduction [online] Available from [16 February 2008]

Being Cheyenne

Waking in the dark, the sun not yet lighting the where the land meets the sky, I build the fire and begin my work for the day. I step in line beside my sister in law as we walk the path down to the stream to begin collecting water for the day. Each day since we have come here the dirt along the path has become smoother, beaten down by the repetition of our feet as we women come daily to draw from the water source.When we once more move on to follow the herds as the season changes, the smooth expanse will be left behind to be swallowed once more by nature. It has been our path for a small time but has always belonged to nature, who will reclaim it once we are gone. Though each day we walk together, the early morning walk to the stream is largely silent as we each think of the daily tasks ahead. This morning, I quickly run over my tasks for the day, allowing extra time to help prepare the buffalo if the hunt is successful.A successful hunt means more work today but peace of mind as wel l since I know we will not go without. For now though, my task is simple – to gather the water as I do every morning. The first thing I do this morning, as I come upon the stream is to step out of the worn moccasins that will encase my feet for the rest of the day and let the cool water rush between my toes. It is here that I watch the sun begin to color the sky, changing from dark to day.Between the water needed for cooking and cleaning, there will be several trips this morning to the stream. On the third trip to the stream, I hear the splashing of the boys bathing and playing at being warriors and begin to hurry. My sister-in-law is no longer by my side but back beside her own fire, preparing the morning meal. I hurry up the path noticing that the camp is now fully awake, as my two boys rush past, impatient for a full belly before going to tend to the horses.

Approaches of Response to Intervention

Approaches of Response to Intervention Response to intervention (RTI) is a number of procedures, which can be used in determining why and how students respond to change in specific instructions (Muoneke, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Approaches of Response to Intervention specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More RTI approach provides advanced procedures for school in designing, implementing, and assessing educational interventions; it helps students who are having difficulties in learning (Muoneke, 2007). This paper will discuss about the response to intervention (RTI) approach. RTI approach has been designed to benefit students and education institutions. One of the greatest benefits of the RTI approach is that, it eliminates the ‘wait to fail† situations (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). With RTI approach, learners have access to immediate assistance and student’s learning difficulties are addressed directly. This reduces the chances of failu re because teachers tackle student’s problems before they get worse. Secondly, the RTI approach can be able to reduce the number of learners being referred for special education program. Considering that the RTI approach provides effective instructions and progress assessment, it has the potential of reducing the number of students being referred for special education while increasing the number of successful students (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). In addition to this, the RTI approach provides more useful instructions compared to the traditional approach (Muoneke, 2007). With the utilization of the student progress-monitoring program, the RTI approach is able to meet the needs of learners directly. Parents and teachers have observed this benefit. On the other hand, when trying to put into practice the RTI approach, they are numerous challenges that hinder this model from being fully effective.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get you r first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The first issue is the problem of limited progress and monitoring tools for secondary schools (Muoneke, 2007). According to Muoneke (2007), less attention has been focused in the secondary schools and this has resulted in having few tools for progress monitoring in schools. Due to the nature of the secondary school system such as departmental structure, there has been a shortage of progress and monitoring tools making it hard to implement this particular model. Secondly, there is the issue of funding. To ensure the RTI model is implemented successful, proper funding is required to enable the entire program to work properly. There is poor allocation of resources to support this model. This hinders meeting the needs of struggling students as required (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). The other challenging issue that must be addressed is redefining the roles of educators (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). While trying to implement the RTI approach in our schools, this issue is has emerged. The existing educators such as classroom teachers and educational service providers have not been given enough orientation (Muoneke, 2007). As such, there is need to redefine the roles of educators to ensure that the program becomes effective. For those schools already using the RTI approach, they are facing problems in clarifying the role of parents in this program (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). Notably, schools that have involved the parent in the RTI approach usually have positive results in student’s academic performance (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). However, most schools have not been able to describe the role of the parents in the RTI model. The involvement of the parents is helpful in promoting communication of the progress and monitoring program. There is need to clarify the role of parents when implementing the RTI model in schools (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Approaches of Response to Intervention specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Another big challenge in our schools when implementing the RTI approach is incorporating culturally instructional practices (Muoneke, 2007). The use of cultural instructional from different backgrounds is beneficial to the students (Muoneke, 2007). However, it has been very challenging in selecting the cultural instructional that can be able to work with the students of different cultural background (Muoneke, 2007). Finally, most schools using this model experience problems of understanding the scaling up RTI implementation (Muoneke, 2007). Since RTI model is a new concept in education sector, a lot of time is required to develop guides that will facilitate understanding this model (Muoneke, 2007). However, until this is achieved, grading level will remain a big challenge for schools that are already using RTI approach. To ensure effective implementation of the RTI program, all major challenges affecting this model must be addressed. Teachers, parents, government, and all other involved stakeholders should work towards ensuring effective implementation of the RTI model, which is no doubt very beneficial. Different strategies can be employed to overcome the existing challenges. First, the government should focus its attention in supporting this program. It should provide schools with enough funds to facilitate implementation of the program. This will solve issues of funds shortage. Secondly, teachers and parents should be given enough orientation through training and education programs to sensitize on the utilization of the RTI approach (Muoneke, 2007). This will clarify the roles of parents in the school concerning this particular model. It will also help in redefining the role of teachers in making the model to become successful. To address the shortage of progress and monitoring tools in secondary school, the involved stakeholders and government should come in and emphas ize the need to focus attention to our secondary schools. The government should also provide financial support to increase the necessary tools for progress and monitoring to be effective in the school system (Muoneke, 2007).Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are many advantages of intervening early in student’s learning experience. First, intervening early in children’s learning experience helps the parents and teachers to indentify young children who are at the risk of experiencing learning difficulties (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). The ability to recognize children with difficulties of learning enables the teachers and parents to develop policies that will facilitate learning among the affected learners. This helps in eradicating cases of school failure. Early intervention of children’s learning experiences facilitates social change. The situation in which teachers can be able to detect difficulties in learning abilities of certain students revolutionizes the way children’s needs are addressed (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). Detecting that a particular student has learning problems gives teachers opportunities to offer special care to the affected students. This facilitates positive change in the society. Apart f rom recognizing students with learning difficulties, early intervention of children’s learning experience helps in making children with special needs to be successful in their first school experiences (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). RTI approach offers the necessary solution. It is the first step in making sure the needs of students with learning difficulties are addressed. In summary, RTI approach is a developed system of instructions and intervention that has been created to cater for students with learning difficulties (Fuchs and Fuchs, 2006). There is no doubt that the RTI approach is useful and very beneficial in eliminating cases of school failure among the student. This model represents the latest improvements in education sector since it ensures that students with learning difficulties are assisted. Despite the challenges facing implementation of RTI approach, this model can bring positive changes in our schools. Reference List Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. (2006). Introduction to r esponse to intervention: What, why, and  how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99. Muoneke, A. (2007). Response to Intervention (RtI): A Systematic Approach to Reading  and School Improvement. Retrieved from sedl.org/pubs/magazine/

The History of Black Videos Aired on MTV

The History of Black Videos Aired on MTV When MTV launched in 1981, viewers struggled to find videos featuring black artists. The network so sparingly showcased African Americans in its early days that Rick James and David Bowie publicly took it to task.  Despite the channels embrace of black musicians such as Beyonce,  Jay-Z  and  Kanye West  today,  theres no denying  MTVs  rocky history with  black music. So, how did MTV shift from shutting African American musicians out in the early 1980s to routinely spotlighting their contributions decades later? A brief history of the channel’s progress regarding race helps to answer that question. Did MTV Exclude Black Videos?   When MTV debuted on Aug. 1, 1981, at least one black face on the network was a mainstay. It belonged to J.J. Jackson, the sole African American on MTVs roster of video jockeys, or VJs as they became known. Despite Jackson’s presence on MTV through 1986, the network faced allegations of racism for giving scant airtime to videos featuring people of color. MTV executives have denied that racism was at the root of the network’s â€Å"blackout,† saying that black artists received little airplay because their music didn’t fit the channel’s rock-based format. â€Å"MTV was originally designed to be a rock music channel,† said Buzz Brindle, MTV’s former director of music programming, to Jet magazine in 2006. â€Å"It was difficult for MTV to find African American artists whose music fit the channel’s format that leaned toward rock at the outset.† With so few black rockers, adding African Americans to MTV’s roster proved difficult, according to the network’s co-founder Les Garland, whom  Jet also interviewed. â€Å"We had nothing to pick from,† Garland explained. â€Å"Fifty percent of my time was spent in the early days of MTV convincing artists to make music videos and convincing record labels to put up money to make those videos†¦Ã¢â‚¬  One artist needed no convincing. He’d even made a video for â€Å"Dont Stop ’Til You Get Enough,† a cut from his 1979 album Off the Wall. But when approached by Michael Jackson’s  record label, would MTV agree to play his  music videos? How the King of Pop Changed MTV It took major prodding to get MTV to play â€Å"Billie Jean,† the second track from Jackson’s 1982 album Thriller. Released Jan. 2, 1983, the single would go on to top the Billboard 100 chart for seven weeks, but Walter Yetnikoff, president of CBS Records Group, reportedly had to threaten to remove all other CBS videos from MTV before the network agreed to air the video for â€Å"Billie Jean.†Ã‚   Garland  denied such a confrontation occurred, telling Jet that the network began playing the video on its own. â€Å"There was never any hesitation. No fret,† he said. Based on his account, MTV aired the video the same day that executives screened it. However â€Å"Billie Jean† ended up on the network, there’s little doubt that it changed the course of MTV. The first video by a black artist to receive heavy rotation on the network, â€Å"Billie Jean† opened up the door for other artists of color to be featured on MTV. â€Å"Billie Jean† also paved the way for Michael Jackson to star in the 14-minute music video â€Å"Thriller,† the most expensive music video ever made at the time. â€Å"Thriller† debuted Dec. 2, 1983. It proved so popular that it was released as a home video that  went on to become a record-breaking bestseller. Rock Music Takes a Backseat Black recording artists such as Michael Jackson, Prince and Whitney Houston dominated the pop and RB charts in the 1980s. During the same period, however, another urban art form was commanding the music industry’s attention- hip-hop. The films Beat Street  and Krush Groove  paid homage to hip-hop in the first half of the decade. By the second half, MTV had taken notice. It debuted its hip-hop-centered program â€Å"Yo! MTV Raps† on Aug. 6, 1988. According to USA Today, the show was the first ever to exclusively focus on hip-hop. (BETs Rap City premiered the following year.) â€Å"Yo! MTV Raps†Ã‚  aired on MTV for seven years. The program opened the door for â€Å"MTV Jams,† a program with an urban music focus that premiered in 1996. Although MTV began with a rock format in mind, the popularity of pop music, hip-hop, and RB among the general public left the network no choice but to diversify its playlists. By the late 1990s, rock music received increasingly less airplay on the channel as boy bands, Disney starlets, and rappers gained ground with audiences, and rock music recovered from the death of grunge. Black VJs MTV may have been criticized for failing to showcase black recording artists from the outset, but it has always included African American VJs among its staff, starting with the late J.J. Jackson. Other notable MTV VJs of color include Downtown Julie Brown, Daisy Fuentes, Idalis, Bill Bellamy, and Ananda Lewis. On shows such as the long-running â€Å"Real World,† MTV makes a point to showcase cast members from diverse backgrounds, albeit often stereotypically. Cartoon Controversy Although MTV has made considerable gains in diversity over the decades, the network has suffered race-related controversies in the 21st century. In 2006, it drew backlash for airing a cartoon that featured black women as canines - tethered, squatting on all fours, and defecating. The networks then-president, Christina Norman, defended the cartoon, calling it a parody of an appearance rapper Snoop Dogg had made with two black women wearing neck collars and chains. Black activists found this response unacceptable. But as they lobbed their accusations of racism and misogyny at the network, they had to take into account one major development at MTV: A  woman of color ran the channel. That’s right; Christina Norman is black. She served as president of MTV from 2005 to 2008. The cartoon controversy reveals that  during Norman’s tenure, MTV still had much-needed lessons to learn about race. But her rise to the top also indicated that the network accused of shutting out black recording artists now welcomed  diversity both on its airwaves and in its boardroom. Programming That Challenges Racial Bias In 2014, through a partnership with David Binder Research, MTV conducted a study of bias among the millennial generation. Soon after, it launched the website Look Different, a resource for young people wishing to fight for greater equality among marginalized peoples.  Ã‚   A year later, MTVs vice president of public affairs, Ronnie Cho, announced that MTV would create and sponsor ongoing programming designed to  change attitudes and behaviors around racial bias.  Included in that programming was MTVs July 22, 2015, premier of the documentary  White People, in which Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Jose Antonio Vargas traveled across the country speaking to white millennials about topics like privilege and race relations.

Influenza communication campaign Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Influenza communication campaign - Essay Example The biggest challenge that health agencies and the government face is the sustaining of alertness and awareness among the public over the particular period that the pandemic is in session. The response to this challenge and others that are posed by the management of risks emanating from unfamiliar health hazards calls for the recognition that the process of promoting this sustenance not only involves ensuring that the information gotten is right but also making sure that the mode of communication of this information is one that incorporates and accommodates diversities that are present in the community’s needs, expectations and characteristics (Ratzan 2012 p. 21).This is why various communication campaigns have been formulated to act as a platform through which the public can be educated about the dangers of pandemics and the methods of coping with them.The campaign that I am to describe took pace in West Virginia several months ago. This was a vaccination campaign conducted i n West Virginia, a state in United States of America. It was composed of audiences and audience segments. The audiences shared some similarities as well as differences and the campaign team conducted several studies to understand the nature of the audience. The most effective way to segment is by use of psychographic and cultural variables. The audiences targeted by the campaign were told that they were not going to be passive who just receive the messages but an active audience able to participate. The team also planned to understand incentives that motivated the audience to participate in the program. It also went ahead to find out the challenges that prevented people who were willing not to participate. There were specific audiences targeted by this campaign which included; parents who had children less than 18 years and younger because they have the power to convince their children to participate. The parents have the responsibility of ensuring that that all their children up to the age of 18 years are protected through vaccination. Others included adults who are healthy who have not yet been infected with the flu and so by vaccinating them, ensures that they are protected. Adults suffering from chronic health conditions such as HIV/AIDS, diabetes, cancer and other diseases are also a target group. A person lives with such diseases for lifetime is a vulnerable group given that their immunity is very low and so the body cannot protect itself from an infection. Expectant women especially those in their late pregnancies that above four months are at risk for their immunity is also low. Those people who live with people at risk such as the health care workers or home caregivers given t hat they live with those who are already affected by the disease and so are more exposed than any other group outside (Ratzan 2012 p. 37). People from minority groups for instance, African Americans who are less privileged in terms of resource allocation and health care services. These are the people groups who are normally neglected and when there is an outbreak of a disease, it takes a long time for them to access health care service centres. The message was to inform people that there is an outbreak of the vaccine in their community and this helped to raise awareness among the community members of a disease, which was not common in the area, and they became alert and cautious enough and got prepared to take precautionary measures. Another thing was to let the public know that there was enough vaccine for all community members that are free of charge. There is

Essay on Ethics in Technology Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

On Ethics in Technology - Essay Example The software companies purchase these copyrights so that the software cannot be copied anywhere else globally. In any case, if the owner wants duplication of the software then a unique kind of copyright is purchased for the software, which is known as the copy left. It allows duplication within specific regions allowed by the owner. Trade secrecy is another form of software protection, which allows the owner to determine where he is willing to sell his software in the world. There are no rights purchased for this type of ethical measures. One of the major characteristics that differentiate trade secrets from others is utilization of trade secrets by companies when they classify the work that does not fall in existing public domain of information. As for software patents, there is no legal existence because the law cannot define whether a software is genuinely a unique invention or not (Reynolds, 2010). Patents usually are given for a period of twenty years for an invention or creatio n. These are three ways software can be protected and their legal usage i.e., ethical usage be made possible. Technological ethics need to be highlighted on a vast scale as when they are enforced with great force, legal usage of the technology can be achieved on a greater margin. These methods of protecting the technology are common yet need special considerations in their development so that they become a strong force in battling against the unethical usage of technology. Any use of product or service that exploits is considered unethical and which gives rise to ethical perceptions. The technology has enabled us to apply several concepts of ethics by our own selves yet we are unable to define what the exact perimeters of ethical usage in technology are. The copyright act of 1976 proposes five basic rights owned by a copyright owner (Tavani, 2011).These rights describe as to what owner’s obligations are and

Memorandum Introduction Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Memorandum Introduction - Assignment Example A perplexing matter that requires more analysis is why are these residents participating in risky illegal affairs that can result to drastic measures? The paucity of affordable housing in New York City has contributed to most individuals in the city residing, in makeshift apartments. The housing experts estimate that there are 100,000 illegal apartments in New York City. Last year, Buildings Department officials acknowledged 18,126 complaints concerning illegal units (Belsha, n.d.). Furthermore, the group of poor homeowners who pay more than half their income in mortgage are struggling to hold onto their homes, thus are renovating their basement and cellars for occupation. The DOB issues annually more than 4,440 violations for illegal conversion of basements, cellars, and attics: - which are not fit for human occupancy due to health and safety risks as specified by The New York City Building or Housing Maintenance code, Article 5- Occupancy of cellars and basements. Councilman Lander, you have asked me to explore the legalization of basement units, including through the new city council legislation based on the standardization of safety and health measures. In this memo, I will evaluate stakeholder interests, by restoring the preferences given to homeless families. This will be achieved by the creation of a new rent financial support program and reformation of DOB code, Article 5- Occupancy of cellars and basements; that will create a momentous dent in restructuring building codes outlawing basement

Multibacillary Leprosy (MB) Case Study

Multibacillary Leprosy (MB) Case Study 1.0 Summary of scenario and potential consequences This case is based on a 32 year old female with multibacillary leprosy(MB). Leprosy, also known as Hansens disease, is a chronic infective disease caused by acid-fast, gram-positive Mycobacterium leprae (M.leprae). Several modes of transmission have been suggested such as skin contact and sexual activities but the primary mechanism is via air by mouth and nasal discharge of untreated infected people. Leprosy can be considered in two parts in which the first milder form involves infection of superficial tissues such as skin. This indeterminate state is usually surmounted by human body eliciting sufficient immune response, with approximately 95% people being not susceptible. Nevertheless, if the body produces too high or too low a response, the second more severe form develops and progresses leaving deformities in areas such as skin, nervous system, mucosa, limbs and eyes. Thus, depending on the patients immune response, leprosy is classified by the World Health Organization(WHO) into MB in which the bodys defense system is ineffective, and paucibacillary leprosy(PB) which produces aggressive response.1 In terms of skin smear tests, MB which has large number of bacteria in skin lesion would produce positive results while PB produces negative results. Another type of classification known as Ridley-Jopling classification divides leprosy into 5 stages; tuberculoid(TT), borderline tuberculoid(BT), midborderline/borderline(BB), borderline lepromatous(BL) and lepromatous(LL) leprosy in which the latter three are the equivalent of MB. In 2009, leprosy cases were reported in 121 countries.3 Based on WHO figures, the number of new cases detected in 2008 was 249007 while the registered prevalence of leprosy worldwide at the beginning of 2009 was 213036. Although there has been a steady fall in the number of new cases detected annually, leprosy remains a global threat. In terms of signs and symptoms, those possibly encountered are numbness, nasal discharge and various kinds of lesions, macules, nodules and papules. More severe symptoms may be diffuse skin thickening, eye lesions leading to cataract, secondary infection and nerve lesions. Although leprosy can affect all people, various specific factors predispose to leprosy. Firstly, leprosy typically affects people living in tropical and subtropical climate such as Africa and South East Asia. People in endemic areas as well as the poor and marginalized community are at greater risk of contracting leprosy. In terms of age, leprosy demonstrates an age-related pattern with peak incidence in children below 10 years old and mid thirties while rarely acquired by infants.2 Besides that, men are generally more susceptible than women and genetic factors may play a role too. Despite years of incubation period, the differential diagnosis of leprosy is vital because the treatment duration is prolonged. Also, an accurate diagnosis helps in determining the appropriate and effective treatment. In vitro culture of M.leprae is not feasible given the extremely slow growth rate. Methods that can be used include skin lesion biopsy and nasal smears done using Fites acid fast tissue staining which stains the bacilli red in a blue background or using Hematoxylin and eosin stain (HE) for histological confirmation.2,4 The number of bacilli visible will denote the type of leprosy. Additionally, phenolic glycopilid-1(PGL-1) characteristic of M.leprae can be distinguished using serology techniques. Given its low mortality rate, leprosy confers debilitating repercussions nevertheless both physiologically and psychologically. Leprosy causes hypoesthesia due to impaired peripheral nerve function, muscle weakness as well as glaucoma, iridocyclitis and inflammation of the eye. As a result, patients are prone to injuries due to diminished vision, and inability to feel and control the body. The incidence of ocular problems is markedly elevated and treatment has proved to reduce prevalence of these complications as described by Gupta et al, whereby 66.3% active leprosy patients manifested ocular problems compared to cured patients at 14.3%.5 If blindness occurs, the relative death risk in blind patients compared to non-blind patients augments by 4.8fold.6 Additionally, leprosy causes clawed fingers and toes, hypopigmented skin lesions with severe ulcerations especially on feet and hands, and facial deformations. These disabilities occurs more frequently in MB patients than in PB patients,5,7 and it was suggested that MB patients have higher risk of death compared to PB patients; the average death age being 5 years younger.8 Contrasting prevalence of deformities was concluded in different studies which includes 56.97%,7 82.4%,9 84.4%,10 67%11 and these differences may be the result of improper examination technique or dissimilar grading criteria. However, the point to note here is that all studies acknowledge the severity of this disease. Apart from imposing restrictions on physical mobility, such immensely conspicuous debilities have led to a stigma linked to leprosy. Leprosy patients are often subjected to public prejudice and discrimination, leaving them significantly affected both socially and economically. Therefore, accurate diagnosis and aggressive commencement of leprosy treatment is essential to improve patients quality of life and to decrease mortality rate. 2.0 Treatment options 2.1 First line therapy The current first line therapy include dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine. Dapsone is a bacteriostatic antibacterial active against M.leprae. Its good oral bioavailability allows its administration in tablet form. However, dapsone monotherapy is no longer used as several studies have established profound drug resistance.12,13,14 Following this, WHO recommends the use of three drugs; dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine, administered as multiple drug therapy(MDT) for MB.1 Supporting this is a systemic evaluation by Kundu et al. which compared dapsone monotherapy to MDT and proved that MDT was significantly superior with capacity to prevent dapsone resistance.15 The current MDT dosing is dapsone 100mg and clofazimine 50mg daily self-administered, and rifampicin 600mg and clofazimine 300mg once monthly supervised. Several studies have shown that MDT is effective in eliminating leprosy with low relapse rates.16,17,18,19 For example, Georges et al. demonstrated that patients treated with MDT until bacterial clearance showed no validated relapses in the follow up period between 4 months to 5 years and 10 months.16 If adverse effects or contraindication occurs resulting in MDT termination, WHO recommends alternative regimen.20 However, it is vital to ascertain conclusively that the negative effects are due to MDT. Dapsone should be terminated immediately if patient develops adverse effects such as Dapsone Hypersensitivity Syndrome (DHS), with rifampicin and clofazimine continued at usual dosages. The use of only rifampicin and clofazimine was proven effective for dapsone intolerant patients as described by Sapkota et al.21 These patients treated for a mean duration of 15 months post-dapsone cessation showed steady decrease in mean bacteriological index(BI). Next, if rifampicin is ill-tolerated, alternative therapy comprises clofazimine 50mg, ofloxacin 400mg and minocycline 100mg daily for six months, followed by clofazimine 50mg combined with either ofloxacin 400mg or minocycline 100mg for at least 18 months; given under supervision. Ji et al showed that ofloxacin eliminated 99.99% rifampicin-resistant cells after 22 doses in two months.22 Finally if clofazimine has poor acceptability, MDT can be replaced with ROM comprising rifampicin 600mg, ofloxacin 400mg and minocycline 100mg given monthly for 24 months. In a field trial in Senegal, patients on ROM showed satisfactory progress with exceptional compliance(>99%) possibly attributed to the simpler monthly dosage.23 This combination was further advocated by S. Ura24 and Villahermosa et al25 which compared 2 years ROM treatment with MDT. The studies concluded that both therapy depicted similar advantages regarding their effect on BI, their safety and tolerability. The latter study also showed no relapse after follow ups 5 years later or more. 2.2 Second line therapy Ofloxacin and pefloxacin are broad-spectrum flouroquinolones used as second line therapy for MB. They are bactericidal acting via inhibiting enzyme DNA gyrase required in DNA replication. Patented in 1982, ofloxacin has been reported to have profound effects on leprosy. A clinical trial executed by Ji et al showed killing of more than 99.99% of viable M.leprae in skin smears inoculated into mouse foot pad, with significant clinical improvements by day 56 of therapy utilizing 400mg ofloxacin daily.26 Also, its effect was not enhanced when combined with clofazimine and dapsone. A similar study by Jianping et al which also utilized mice footpad inoculated with leprosy patients skin biopsies had analogous findings, with no M.leprae growth detected.27 These studies supports the notion that ofloxacin possesses strong bactericidal activity. Comparing pefloxacin to ofloxacin, it was found that pefloxacin was less active, requiring 150mg/kg to exert bactericidal effect compared to 50mg/kg fo r ofloxacin.22 Although minimal side effects were encountered in these studies, the short duration of therapy will not vouch for this as severe adverse reactions have been reported including tendon damage, peripheral neuropathy, cardiovascular toxicity and hepatotoxicity. Moving on, the broad spectrum minocycline is a tetracycline antibacterial which can be used in patients intolerant to dapsone or clofazimine.28 In a clinical trial by Fajardo et al, patients treated with 100mg daily minocycline for 6 months followed by WHO MDT manifested distinct clinical improvement within the first month with negative PGL-1 antigen at the end of 6 months treatment.29 However, it has been reported that minocycline induce hyperpigmentation which resulted in termination of therapy.30 This side effect ought to be considered particularly when minocycline is used to replace clofazimine. In terms of bactericidal activity, minocycline is considered more effective than clarithromycin, but significantly diminished activity compared to rifampicin. Next, clarithromycin is a bactericidal macrolide which suppresses bacterial growth by preventing its protein synthesis. A few clinical trials have shown the advantages of clarithromycin including its capability to kill M.leprae, considerable clinical improvement, patient acceptability and minor adverse effects.31,32 Daily dosage of 500mg revealed killing of 99% bacilli within 28 days and 99.9% by day 56.32 However, limited studies with clarithromycin for leprosy use have been done. Until further researches are carried out, clarithromycin remains the second line treatment for multibacillary leprosy. Since the past two decades, concerns over established dapsone resistance and increasingly emerging rifampicin resistance have set interest on use of either thioamide or clofazimine concurrently with rifampicin. However, clofazimine was chosen by WHO due to reports of hepatotoxicity when thioamides were used with rifampicin.33,34 Nevertheless, ethionamide and prothionamide are two thioamide drugs being investigated currently as monotherapy for leprosy treatment. Although mainly used for tuberculosis therapy, both drugs have been shown to exhibit significant anti-leprotic activity based on a clinical trial by Fajardo et al.35 Treatment was well tolerated for both drugs with a clinical progress of 74% and 83% respectively. Prothionamide was found to be superior to ethionamide and the overall efficacy of both drugs was similar to that of dapsone and clofazimine. However, they were less efficacious compared to rifampicin, ofloxacin, pefloxacin, minocycline and clarithromycin. They are al so more expensive than dapsone. Consequently, thioamides are generally not recommended. Finally, rifampicin and Isoprodian comprising dapsone, prothionamide and isoniazid were used in Malta Leprosy Eradication Project(MLEP).36 During the 30-year project, the leprosy prevalence steadily declined with exceptionally low degree of relapse and toxicity. It was suggested that treatment with two Isoprodian tablets daily and 600mg rifampicin tablet completely eradicated leprosy from Malta. This may well set the baseline for leprosy treatment. However, Isoprodian being not readily available became a drawback in proceeding with this therapy. Also, the MLEP posed several limitations including the confinement of the project to a relatively small area which hinders its feasibility in larger areas. Additionally, the fact that leprosy was already declining in Malta before the project commenced in 1971 raised questions over the true effect of the therapy on leprosy elimination. 3.0 Treatment recommendation and supporting evidence After discussing the treatment options available, 24 months MDT is recommended for the 32 year old female patient in this case. This decision is made based on the evidences presented previously on efficacy of MDT and also the fact that not many reliable studies have been conducted on other alternatives. The clinical pharmacological principles of each MDT drug and more evidences will be presented in this section to justify the recommendation. Firstly, dapsone is an established anti-leprotic agent acting via preventing dihyrofolic acid formation thus inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis crucial for M.leprae development. In terms of adverse effects, dapsone has been associated with side effects such as methaemoglobinamia, haemolysis, allergic rhinitis, neurophaty, aganulocytosis and DHS consisting Type 1 reversal reaction and Type 2 erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL) reaction. However, at doses used for leprosy treatment, these side effects are uncommon.37 Besides, DHS can be ameliorated with corticosteroid therapy. In order to curb resistance against dapsone, it should be used concomitantly with rifampicin and clofazimine as MDT. Also, there has been evidence of significant decline in frequency and seriousness of Type 1 and 2 reactions in patients on MDT, possibly due to rapid arrest on leprosy progression and clofazimines anti-inflammatory action.20 Next, rifampicin is an antibacterial which plays a major role in inducing rapid M.leprae cell death by inhibiting RNA polymerase involved in protein synthesis. Rifampicin has good oral bioavailability as it is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. A monthly 600mg dose is highly bactericidal and is almost as effective as rifampicin given daily as subsequent doses do not augment killing rate proportionately. Thus although rifampicin is expensive, a monthly dose contributes to its cost-effectiveness, feasibility and compliance.20 The downside of rifampicin is that adverse effects such as hepatotoxicity have been reported thus requiring frequent liver function tests and blood tests to detect liver impairment. Other common side effects include gastrointestinal disturbances, fever, headache and rashes. Also, being a liver enzyme inducer, rifampicin upregulates cytochrome P450 resulting in enhanced metabolism of many concomitantly administered hepatic cleared drugs. However, th is effect is relatively minimal due to its once monthly dosing. Furthermore, though rifampicin increases dapsone clearance rate, no changes in dose have been necessary as concluded by Pieters et al.38 Interaction with clofazimine is also not likely as rifampicin lack tendency to accumulate in tissues due to its relatively short half life (2-3 hours) compared to clofazimine (70 days). The third drug used in MDT is clofazimine which based on the MDT dosage is the most well-tolerated amongst the three drugs and is practically non-toxic.39 It is a bacteriostatic antibacterial which has predilection towards mycobacterial DNA and inhibits bacterial growth. A mere 300mg loading dose once monthly may well serve as a repository to maintain sufficient drug in the body.20 However, the downside to its use is that some 75-100% patients encounter pink colouration of the skin, but this side effect is reversible months after stopping therapy.40 Given its efficacy yet without serious adverse effects as proven by various studies and clinical trials, it would be obvious to use clofazimine as part of MDT.41,42,43 In terms of duration of MDT, the recommended duration of MDT has been constantly. WHOs previous recommendation of 24 months therapy showed high efficacy with very low relapse rate. However, in the Seventh Expert Committee(1997), the duration of MDT was shortened to 12 months.1 A study conducted by Sales et al. showed that the decline in bacillary index and occurrence of adverse reactions was analogous for both 12 and 24 months MDT.44 However, this was opposed by US National Hansen Disease Program (NHDP) which stands firm with 24 months MDT with the perspective that more vigorous and longer treatment duration generates higher efficacy with lower relapse rate.28 It also mentioned that the 12 months MDT recommended by WHO was due to cost consideration in developing countries. Besides that, based on the BNF, treatment for at least 2 years is necessary for MB.37 The fundamental objective of leprosy therapy is determined by the relapse rate and degree of disability. Having said so, many studies have showed that the relapse rate after completion of MDT for 2 years yielded either zero or very low relapse rate.45,46,47,48,49,50 These studies are parallel to a long term follow-up by Shaw et al45 which proved zero relapse using this regimen and also by a retrospective analysis conducted in China by Shen et al47 which showed that out of 2374 patients followed up for a mean of 8.27 years, five patients had relapse resulting in a relapse rate of 0.21/1000 person-years. Another basis for the 24 months MDT was the review by WHO which revealed a very low relapse rate of 0.9/10 000 person-years in analysis of more than 20,000 MB patients.49 Furthermore, Katoch et al reported that follow-up conducted between 12-44 months after MDT treatment revealed deterioration in patients who received only 12-18 months treatment and continuous improvement in those giv en 24 months therapy.51 Thus, a 24 months MDT treatment would be the wise choice for this patient. Bearing in mind that this patient is a 32 year old female who is at her child bearing age, it is paramount to ascertain if she is pregnant or lactating. Extreme caution should be undertaken if she is pregnant or lactating, taking into account risks-benefits of leprosy treatment. Several studies have demonstrated adverse effects encountered by pregnant and lactating females such as relapse, type 1 and 2 dapsone reactions and peripheral neuropathy following therapy and are thought to be due to suppression of immunity during pregnancy and breast-feeding.52,53,54However, some studies have showed that these drugs can be used safely during pregnancy.20,55 Thus, although MDT may incur risks to pregnancy and exacerbate leprosy, a well-organized health plan, frequent and regular supervision may well outweigh the risk with its potential benefits.4,54 Also, effects of MDT on lactating is very minor. Although significant amount of dapsone is found in breast milk, its risks to infants are very m inimal. In contrast, the quantity of rifampicin in milk is too small to be harmful to the baby. Likewise, only minute amounts of clofazimine are excreted through breast milk and thus far there have not been reports on severe negative effects on breast-feeding except minor skin discolouration of infant. All in all, treatment using 24 months MDT has proven highly successful with rapid conversion of disease state from infectious to being non-infectious even after the first dose. MDT remains the ultimate option due to its apparent benefits of curing and stopping transmission of leprosy, its virtually zero relapse rate, minimal side effects, ease of administration and storage, cost-effectiveness and vast clinical evidences. Additionally, patient and public education is vital to aid patient compliance and improve understanding on leprosy. In this context, health professionals carry tremendous responsibilities in giving social support and psychological rehabilitation to help patients cope with the physical and mental distress caused by the disease as well as curing the stigma of leprosy.